汉坦病毒 — 答疑

一般情况下不会。绝大多数汉坦病毒种类——包括辛诺柏病毒、普马拉病毒、汉滩病毒和首尔病毒——仅通过与感染啮齿动物及其粪便、尿液和唾液的接触传播。唯一有文献记载的例外是安第斯病毒（ANDV），主要分布在阿根廷和智利。安第斯病毒在密切且长时间接触的情况下（例如同住家属或未做防护的医护人员）曾被记录到有限的人传人现象。MV Hondius 聚集性疫情即由安第斯病毒引起，这也是各国开展国际接触者追踪的原因，尽管人传人本身十分罕见。

汉坦病毒的潜伏期通常为暴露后 1 至 8 周，大多数病例在接触后 2 至 4 周内出现症状（来源：CDC）。正因潜伏期较长，WHO 才持续主动监测 MV Hondius 的乘客和密切接触者：旅客已于 2026 年 4 月 24 日在圣赫勒拿岛下船，目前散布于 6 个国家，与该聚集性疫情相关的新发病例最晚可能在 2026 年 6 月中旬才会出现。

汉坦病毒主要通过四条途径由啮齿动物传给人：（1）吸入受感染啮齿动物尿液、粪便或唾液形成的气溶胶——这是最常见的途径，尤其在通风不良的封闭空间中（如小木屋、车库、棚屋、谷仓）。（2）直接接触啮齿动物、其排泄物或被污染的表面，特别是经由破损皮肤或黏膜。（3）被感染啮齿动物咬伤（罕见）。（4）食用被啮齿动物排泄物污染的食物。安第斯病毒还有罕见的人传人病例记录，需要密切且长时间接触（如同住家属、未配备个人防护装备的医护人员）。汉坦病毒不通过蚊子、蜱虫或其他节肢动物传播。

Smallpox spread almost exclusively person-to-person through respiratory droplets and direct contact with skin lesions, and was highly contagious with a basic reproduction number (R0) of 5-7. Mpox is less transmissible: clade IIb (2022 outbreak) spread primarily through close physical and sexual contact, with an estimated R0 of 1.1-2.4 in the MSM community. Mpox also has a zoonotic reservoir (rodents, primates), meaning it can re-enter the human population from animals — unlike smallpox, which had no animal reservoir.

The primary route is contact with the multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) — specifically its urine, faeces, or saliva — or by handling and consuming infected rats. Human-to-human transmission occurs through direct contact with blood, urine, faeces, vomit, or other bodily fluids of an infected person. Lassa fever is NOT airborne; casual contact poses minimal risk. Healthcare workers are at risk without adequate PPE. Sexual transmission is documented during convalescence, as the virus persists in semen for up to three months.

汉坦病毒并不像 COVID-19 或麻疹那样通过空气传播。它通过干燥的啮齿动物排泄物（尿液、粪便、唾液）被扰动后局部悬浮于空气中的气溶胶传播——例如在啮齿动物出没的小木屋中扫地或用吸尘器吸干燥鼠粪时。这意味着「空气」途径的传播范围较短，且依赖于特定的环境条件，并不像呼吸道病原体那样可在共用空间中长时间被呼吸吸入。安第斯病毒的例外情形是人与人之间的密切长时间接触，同样并非传统意义上的呼吸道空气传播。标准的通风措施（进入封闭木屋前开窗 30 分钟以上）即可有效降低风险。

Mpox is not classified as a traditional sexually transmitted infection (STI), but sexual contact is an efficient transmission route. During the 2022 clade IIb global outbreak, the majority of cases in high-income countries involved men who have sex with men (MSM), transmitted through close skin-to-skin contact during sex. The virus spreads via direct contact with lesions, rash, or body fluids — circumstances common during sexual activity. However, mpox also transmits through non-sexual close contact (household, healthcare settings), distinguishing it from classic STIs.

病死率因病毒种类差异极大。引起汉坦病毒肺综合征（HPS）的安第斯病毒和辛诺柏病毒，病死率（CFR）为 30%-40%。引起肾综合征出血热（HFRS）的欧亚变种——普马拉、汉滩、首尔病毒——病死率较低：普马拉 0.1%-1%，首尔约 1%-2%，汉滩 5%-15%。MV Hondius 聚集性疫情涉及安第斯病毒，是致死性最强的毒株。截至 2026 年 5 月 7 日，已报告 8 例病例，其中 3 例死亡——病死率 37.5%，与安第斯病毒的历史数据相符。目前没有特效抗病毒药物，标准治疗为重症支持性医疗（吸氧、机械通气、ECMO），早期干预可显著改善预后。

No. Mpox is substantially less dangerous than smallpox. Smallpox had a case fatality rate of approximately 30% and caused disfigurement in survivors. Mpox clade II (responsible for the 2022-2024 global outbreak) has a fatality rate below 1% in high-income settings. Mpox clade I, circulating in Central Africa, carries a higher fatality rate of 1-10%, historically higher in children. Smallpox was eradicated globally in 1980; mpox continues to circulate in animal reservoirs and spreads to humans.

The overall case fatality rate (CFR) is approximately 1%, reflecting the high proportion of mild or asymptomatic cases. In hospitalised patients — who represent the severe end of the spectrum — the CFR rises to 15-25%. Lassa fever accounts for an estimated 5,000 deaths per year across West Africa. Pregnant women in the third trimester face especially high risk: foetal mortality approaches 80%, and maternal mortality is also significantly elevated.

根据现有证据，几乎可以认定不会。WHO 总干事于 2026 年 5 月 7 日公开表示，MV Hondius 聚集性疫情「不是下一场 COVID」。三方面结构性原因：（1）汉坦病毒在人际间传播效率极低——安第斯病毒是唯一有文献记录人传人的毒株，且需要密切且长时间的接触，人际传播链中有效 R0 远低于 1。（2）自然宿主（特定啮齿动物物种）地理分布受限，因此持续传播依赖于啮齿动物本身，而非仅靠患病人群。（3）30%-40% 的高病死率反而抑制了扩散——宿主在感染他人之前往往已经死亡或住院，即典型的「过于致命反而难以传播」动态。Polymarket 上的交易者意见与此一致：「2026 年汉坦病毒大流行」一题在最初恐慌中飙升至 38% 后，已在交易量 220 万美元的水平稳定在 9%。考虑到 6 周潜伏期，持续警惕仍属必要，但发展为大流行的可能性极低。

Yes. China reports the world's highest annual burden of hantavirus disease, with roughly 10,000 to 20,000 cases of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) each year — mostly caused by Hantaan virus and Seoul virus carried by Apodemus agrarius (striped field mouse) and Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) respectively. Provinces with the highest incidence are Shaanxi, Heilongjiang, Shandong, and Liaoning. The 2025 epidemiological report from China CDC showed continued decline from 1980s peaks (which exceeded 100,000 cases per year) thanks to rodent control programs and the domestic inactivated bivalent vaccine Hantavax (Hantaan + Seoul, licensed in China since 1994). The MV Hondius 2026 outbreak involves Andes virus — a New World strain unrelated to Chinese-endemic strains — and is therefore epidemiologically separate from China's ongoing HFRS background activity. Travelers to China face very low hantavirus risk in urban areas; rural cabins and grain storage with active rodent infestation are the historical exposure setting.

汉坦病毒在全球各地均有分布，且具有明显的区域差异。美洲：辛诺柏病毒（美国「四角地区」——新墨西哥、亚利桑那、科罗拉多、犹他——以及加州、俄勒冈、华盛顿）、安第斯病毒（阿根廷、智利、乌拉圭）、Bayou 和 Black Creek Canal 病毒（美国墨西哥湾沿岸各州）、Choclo 病毒（巴拿马）。欧洲：普马拉病毒（北欧、波罗的海地区、俄罗斯、德国、法国、比利时，意大利北部少量分布）、Dobrava-Belgrade 病毒（巴尔干地区）。亚洲：汉滩病毒（中国、韩国）、首尔病毒（通过褐家鼠遍布全球）、阿穆尔病毒（俄罗斯东部）。非洲：Sangassou 病毒（几内亚——人类感染病例有限）。MV Hondius 疫情涉及的是来自南美的安第斯病毒。船舶目前位于佛得角（西非，无本地汉坦病毒）海域，正驶往西班牙加那利群岛。

意大利没有本土获得性汉坦病毒病例的文献记录。普马拉病毒（PUUV）是一种致病性较温和的汉坦病毒种类，可引发 HFRS，仅在少数北部阿尔卑斯地区（特伦蒂诺-上阿迪杰、弗留利-威尼斯朱利亚）有有限分布，且近年未见人类病例。ECDC 评估 MV Hondius 疫情对欧洲普通人群的风险为「非常低」。意大利卫生部仍加强了对从南美返回旅客的监测。

There is no documented endemic hantavirus circulation in the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Yemen) or in the Levant (Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Palestine, Israel). Limited serological surveys in Egypt and Turkey have detected hantavirus antibodies in commensal rodents (likely Seoul virus from Rattus norvegicus), but no clinically significant human cases linked to those reservoirs have been reported. The WHO Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO) does not list hantavirus among priority emerging zoonoses for the region. The MV Hondius 2026 outbreak does not currently involve any Middle Eastern country in confirmed-case or contact-tracing lists. Risk to residents and travelers within the region remains very low, including for pilgrims attending Hajj or Umrah in Saudi Arabia, where the primary health concerns remain meningococcal disease, MERS-CoV, respiratory infections, and heat illness.

Nigeria has the highest reported burden, with thousands of cases annually tracked by the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC). Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea are also highly endemic. Sporadic cases have occurred in Mali, Ivory Coast, and Benin. International importation has been recorded in Europe and North America among returning travellers. The WHO regularly issues Disease Outbreak News alerts for Nigeria, with peak transmission typically between January and April.

The MV Hondius cluster is the active hantavirus outbreak as of 2026. Live counts (confirmed cases, suspected cases, deaths, affected countries, and people under contact tracing) are shown on the homepage KPI bar and refresh hourly from D1. Patients are hospitalized in the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, South Africa, and Saint Helena; contact tracing remains active in the United States, Singapore, Canada, France, the United Kingdom, and Spain. WHO, CDC, ECDC, PAHO, and Africa CDC have each issued situational updates. Prediction markets on Polymarket are tracking the probability of WHO declaring a pandemic in 2026 and additional country-specific case confirmations — see the Markets section for live odds. All numbers update hourly from 50+ sources; this FAQ deliberately avoids hardcoded figures so it never goes stale.

截至 2026 年 5 月 7 日，MV Hondius 聚集性疫情共报告 8 例（5 例实验室确诊，3 例疑似待确认）和 3 例死亡。患者目前住院于 5 个国家：荷兰、德国、瑞士、南非和圣赫勒拿。至少有另外 6 个国家正在开展接触者追踪：美国、新加坡、加拿大、法国、英国和西班牙。除 Hondius 聚集性疫情外，汉坦病毒散发病例每年在流行地区均有报告：美国（辛诺柏）通常每年 20—40 例，阿根廷（安第斯）每年 100—200 例，欧亚大陆（普马拉、汉滩、首尔）则有数千例肾综合征出血热病例。本次疫情的异常之处不在于绝对病例数，而在于通过游轮旅行造成的多国扩散态势。

No. Mpox is not eradicated. Smallpox is the only human disease ever declared eradicated (WHO, 1980), achieved through a global vaccination campaign. Mpox continues to circulate in animal reservoirs (primarily rodents in Central and West Africa) and causes recurrent human outbreaks. The 2022-2024 global mpox outbreak (clade IIb) led the WHO to declare a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) twice: in 2022 and again in August 2024 when clade I expanded in the DRC and neighbouring countries. Eradication of mpox is not currently feasible given its animal reservoir.

安第斯病毒（ANDV）是流行于南美洲南部的一种汉坦病毒种类，主要分布于阿根廷、智利及乌拉圭和玻利维亚部分地区。该病毒因安第斯山脉而得名，其主要自然宿主长尾侏儒稻鼠（Oligoryzomys longicaudatus）即广泛分布于山脉沿线。ANDV 可引起汉坦病毒肺综合征（HPS），病死率为 30%-40%，并且是所有汉坦病毒中唯一具有有限人传人能力的种类——这一现象最早见于 1996 年阿根廷 El Bolsón 的聚集性疫情。MV Hondius 聚集性疫情即由安第斯病毒引起，指示病例在 2025 年 11 月至 2026 年 4 月间曾在阿根廷、智利和乌拉圭广泛旅行。

截至 2026 年 5 月 7 日，MV Hondius 位于佛得角领海，WHO 及一名随船医疗专家正在协助开展船上评估。该船预计于 2026 年 5 月 11 日前后抵达西班牙加那利群岛拉斯帕尔马斯，届时将完成船上余下来自 23 个国家的 146 名旅客的最终下船和医学筛查。此前的下船行动包括：4 月 24 日 30 名旅客在圣赫勒拿下船，以及向南非、荷兰、德国和瑞士的个别医疗转运。该船于 2026 年 4 月 1 日由阿根廷乌斯怀亚出发。

Lassa fever is an acute viral haemorrhagic illness caused by Lassa mammarenavirus (Arenaviridae family). It is endemic in West Africa — primarily Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea — and was first identified in 1969 in Lassa, Nigeria. The disease is a zoonosis: its primary reservoir is the multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis). Approximately 80% of infections are mild or asymptomatic; the remaining 20% can progress to severe disease involving haemorrhagic manifestations and multi-organ failure.

两种病毒在几乎每一个流行病学维度上都截然不同。传播途径：COVID-19（SARS-CoV-2）通过呼吸道飞沫和气溶胶在人际间高效传播；汉坦病毒主要为人畜共患病（啮齿动物传人），仅安第斯病毒在密切且长时间接触下出现过罕见且有限的人传人。基本传染数 R0：COVID-19 原始毒株 2-3，当前变种最高 8-15；安第斯病毒在人际传播链中的 R0 小于 1，意味着难以引发持续传播。病死率：COVID-19 在整体人群中 0.5%-2%；安第斯汉坦病毒为 30%-40%。大流行潜力：COVID-19 在全球造成数百万人死亡；汉坦病毒从未引发过大流行，WHO 评估当前风险为「低」。MV Hondius 聚集性疫情截至 2026 年 5 月 7 日共 8 例，属于被有效控制的人畜共患事件，而非大流行的起点。

汉坦病毒 vs 埃博拉——病死率 30-40% vs 25-90%,啮齿动物 vs 果蝠宿主,无疫苗 vs Ervebo。7 个关键区别和 2026 年实时病例。(1) 宿主:汉坦病毒为啮齿动物(鹿鼠、田鼠);埃博拉为果蝠和非人灵长类。(2) 人传人:汉坦病毒罕见(仅安第斯型,需密切长时间接触);埃博拉确有,通过体液高效传播,可造成数千例规模的疫情。(3) 病死率:汉坦病毒肺综合征(HPS)30-40%(安第斯型);埃博拉 25-90%,因毒株而异——埃博拉扎伊尔型历史上 50-90%。(4) 疫苗:汉坦病毒无国际批准疫苗;埃博拉已有 Ervebo(rVSV-ZEBOV),自 2019 年起获 FDA 和 EMA 批准用于扎伊尔型埃博拉病毒,另有针对苏丹型的高级候选疫苗。(5) 治疗:两者均依赖重症支持治疗;埃博拉另有两种 FDA 批准的单克隆抗体疗法——Inmazeb(REGN-EB3)和 Ebanga(mAb114),早期给药可显著降低病死率。(6) 重大疫情:汉坦病毒阿根廷 1996、美国 1993(四角地区),以及当前追踪的 MV Hondius 2026 聚集性疫情。埃博拉西非 2014-2016(28,600 例 / 11,300 死亡)、刚果(金)2018-2020(3,470 例 / 2,287 死亡),以及乌干达反复爆发。(7) 大流行潜力:两者历史上均为区域性;均未达到全球大流行级别。实时追踪两者:MV Hondius 聚集疫情在 outbreakwatch.net,Ebola Situation Watch 2026 在 outbreakwatch.net/ebola。

Both are African viral haemorrhagic fevers, but they differ significantly. Lassa is caused by an arenavirus, Ebola by a filovirus. Lassa is endemic and causes tens of thousands of cases annually; Ebola causes sporadic large outbreaks. Lassa's overall CFR (~1%) is much lower than Ebola's (25-90%), though hospitalised Lassa patients face higher mortality (~15-25%). Lassa does not spread person-to-person as easily as Ebola. Both require similar PPE for healthcare workers.

Mpox and smallpox are both caused by orthopoxviruses, but they are distinct diseases. Smallpox (Variola virus) was eradicated in 1980 and no longer occurs naturally. Mpox (Monkeypox virus) is an ongoing zoonotic disease, with outbreaks in 2022-2024 (clade IIb, global) and 2024-2025 (clade I, primarily Democratic Republic of Congo). Key clinical difference: mpox causes prominent lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes), which does NOT occur in smallpox. Mpox is significantly less severe: clade II fatality rate is under 1%, while smallpox killed approximately 30% of those infected.

汉坦病毒和流感的早期症状有重叠：均可出现发热、乏力、肌肉酸痛和头痛。CDC 临床资料指出四点关键差异。（1）汉坦病毒的肌肉疼痛剧烈，集中于大肌群（大腿、髋部、下背部）；流感的肌肉疼痛则更为弥散。（2）汉坦病毒在早期很少出现上呼吸道症状（无流涕、咽痛）；流感则常见。（3）汉坦病毒在发病 4 至 10 天后会迅速进展为呼吸功能衰竭（HPS 阶段）——这一特征在流感中并不存在。（4）汉坦病毒无明显季节性；流感冬季高发。CDC 临床指南强调，是否有啮齿动物接触史或赴流行地区旅行史，是触发汉坦病毒检测的关键信息。

Mpox illness typically lasts 2-4 weeks. A prodromal phase of fever, lymphadenopathy, and fatigue precedes the rash by 1-5 days. The rash phase — lesions progressing macule, papule, vesicle, pustule, scab — lasts 2-3 weeks. A person remains infectious from symptom onset until all scabs have fallen off and new skin has healed beneath them. Milder clade IIb cases from the 2022 outbreak (few lesions limited to the genital area) sometimes resolved in under 2 weeks.

Symptoms begin 6-21 days after exposure. Mild cases present with fever, general weakness, headache, sore throat, and mild gastrointestinal symptoms. Severe cases (about 20% of infections) include high fever, chest pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, facial swelling, and haemorrhagic manifestations (bleeding from gums, nose, or eyes). A key late complication is sensorineural hearing loss, occurring in 25-30% of patients — including those who recover from acute illness — and is often permanent.

Both diseases begin with fever, headache, back pain, and fatigue, followed by a characteristic rash. The key distinguishing features of mpox are: (1) prominent lymphadenopathy (swollen glands) — absent in smallpox; (2) rash lesions may appear in different stages simultaneously; (3) genital/perianal lesions are common in clade IIb. Smallpox lesions were uniform in stage and deeply embedded in the skin. Mpox lesions evolve through macule, papule, vesicle, pustule, scab, typically over 2-4 weeks. In the 2022 clade IIb outbreak, many cases presented with few lesions limited to the genital area without a classical widespread rash.

汉坦病毒感染通常表现为两个阶段（来源：CDC）。早期发热期持续 1 至 7 天，可出现发热、剧烈肌肉酸痛（大腿、髋部、背部、肩部）、乏力、头痛、头晕、寒战，部分病例伴有恶心、呕吐或腹痛。在 HPS 病例（安第斯、辛诺柏）中，发病 4 至 10 天后进入心肺期，出现咳嗽、呼吸急促、肺水肿及迅速进展的呼吸衰竭。HFRS 变种（普马拉、汉滩、首尔）还可引起急性肾损伤和出血表现。汉坦病毒与流感或 COVID-19 在临床上的关键鉴别点，是 HPS 病例中向重症呼吸衰竭的突然转折。

对于交易活跃、信息公开的事件，预测市场具有较好的校准度，但对于新发疫情存在已知局限。优势：能聚合多元观点，并随新数据快速更新。在疫情情境下的局限：（1）疫情初期市场流动性低——少数交易者就可能显著影响价格。（2）结算风险——「正式宣布大流行」的定义本身可能存在争议。（3）信息不对称——卫生主管部门掌握交易者无法获得的内部数据。（4）反身性——当市场本身成为新闻时，反而可能影响其所预测的事件。Polymarket 的「2026 年汉坦病毒大流行」市场目前交易量已超过 350 万美元：流动性足以抵御单一交易者操纵，但波动性仍较大，且对 WHO 表态高度敏感。

预测市场是一种线上交易平台，参与者买卖的份额价值取决于某一未来事件的结果。在是/否事件中，若事件发生，YES 份额支付 1 美元，否则为 0 美元；当前介于 0 与 1 美元之间的价格代表市场对该事件发生概率的综合估计。例如，「2026 年汉坦病毒大流行？」YES 份额交易价为 0.09 美元，即意味着群体估计概率为 9%。主要的预测市场包括 Polymarket（基于加密货币、面向全球）和 Kalshi（受美国监管的衍生品交易所）。研究人员常将其作为预测信号，应用于从选举到疫情等各类事件，因为众多交易者下注的聚合往往能产生校准良好的概率。OutbreakWatch 仅展示 Polymarket 和 Kalshi 的数据，不提供交易功能。

Polymarket 上的「2026 年汉坦病毒大流行？」是今年波动最剧烈的健康相关市场之一。该市场于 2026 年 5 月 4 日开盘，初始概率为 3.5%；5 月 5 日因首批人传人和死亡报告出现而飙升至 38%；其后在 WHO 总干事公开表态认为该聚集性疫情「不是下一场 COVID」之后，于 5 月 7 日回落至 9%。总交易量已突破 220 万美元。价格变化反映了群体对三类信号的实时评估：（1）WHO 的风险定性，（2）原始船舶聚集圈以外的新增病例报告，以及（3）长达 6 周的潜伏期，意味着新增病例可能持续到 2026 年 6 月中旬。该市场将于 2026 年 12 月 31 日结算——投注者正在为未来 8 个月的尾部风险定价。

CDC 的预防指引重点在于减少与啮齿动物接触。标准建议包括：（1）封堵住所、棚屋和小木屋周围大于 ¼ 英寸的孔洞，防止啮齿动物进入。（2）在问题区域使用夹式捕鼠器；不要仅用毒饵（鼠尸仍须安全处理）。（3）在进入长期封闭的建筑（小木屋、车库、储物棚）前，先开门开窗通风至少 30 分钟。（4）清理前用稀释漂白剂溶液（1:10）润湿灰尘和粪便；切勿直接清扫或用吸尘器吸取干燥鼠粪，否则会使病毒颗粒气溶胶化。（5）在处理可能存在啮齿动物污染时，佩戴橡胶或乳胶手套及 N95 口罩。（6）将食物存放于防鼠容器中。前往流行地区的旅行者应避免在啮齿动物出没的小木屋或帐篷中过夜。

Yes. Smallpox vaccines provide cross-protection against mpox because both viruses are orthopoxviruses. The JYNNEOS vaccine (MVA-BN, Imvamune/Imvanex) is specifically approved for both mpox and smallpox prevention. ACAM2000 (the replication-competent vaccinia vaccine) is also protective but carries more side-effect risks. Pre-1980 smallpox vaccination campaigns conferred approximately 85% protection against mpox; that immunity has waned in the global population since routine vaccination stopped. JYNNEOS is now recommended as a 2-dose series for at-risk individuals in many countries.

截至 2026 年 5 月，尚无任何汉坦病毒疫苗获得 WHO、FDA 或 EMA 的批准。韩国和中国在国内使用过针对 HFRS 毒株（汉滩、首尔）的灭活汉坦病毒疫苗（例如 Hantavax），但这些疫苗未获国际批准，亦无法预防新大陆 HPS 毒株（安第斯、辛诺柏）。多种针对安第斯病毒和辛诺柏病毒的候选疫苗正处于早期研究及 1 期临床试验阶段，预计 2028 年之前都难以获批。Polymarket 上「2026 年内汉坦病毒疫苗获批？」一题目前的交易概率为 2%。

Ribavirin, an antiviral drug, is effective when given early — ideally within 6 days of fever onset. Early supportive care (IV fluids, electrolyte correction, treating secondary infections) also significantly improves outcomes. Convalescent plasma has been explored but its efficacy is not firmly established. There is currently no WHO-approved vaccine for Lassa fever, though multiple vaccine candidates are in clinical development.

Tecovirimat (TPOXX/ST-246) is an antiviral approved by the FDA and EMA specifically for the treatment of orthopoxvirus infections including mpox. Brincidofovir and cidofovir are alternative antivirals used in severe cases. For most people with clade II mpox, illness is self-limiting and resolves within 2-4 weeks with supportive care (pain management, wound care, hydration). Severe cases — clade I infection, immunocompromised patients, children, or extensive skin involvement — require antiviral treatment and may need hospitalisation.